A comprehensive exploration of Einstein's greatest contributions to science, the evolution of his ideas, and the most fascinating aspects of his life.
Based on Walter Isaacson's biography "Einstein: His Life and Universe" and primary sources.
- The Man
- The Miracle Year (1905)
- Greatest Contributions
- Evolution of Ideas
- Top 10 Most Interesting Things
- Key Quotes
- Timeline
- Further Reading
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics. His work fundamentally changed our understanding of space, time, gravity, and the universe.
| Attribute | Detail |
|---|---|
| Born | March 14, 1879 - Ulm, Germany |
| Died | April 18, 1955 - Princeton, New Jersey |
| Citizenship | German, Swiss, American |
| Education | ETH Zurich |
| Known For | Relativity, E=mc², Photoelectric Effect |
| Nobel Prize | Physics, 1921 |
In 1905, while working as a patent clerk in Bern, Switzerland, the 26-year-old Einstein published four papers that would revolutionize physics. This period is known as his Annus Mirabilis (Miracle Year).
| Paper | Date | Subject | Impact |
|---|---|---|---|
| Photoelectric Effect | March 17 | Light consists of discrete quanta (photons) | Foundation of quantum theory; Nobel Prize 1921 |
| Brownian Motion | May 11 | Mathematical explanation of particle movement | Proved atoms exist |
| Special Relativity | June 30 | Laws of physics are the same for all observers in uniform motion | Redefined space and time |
| Mass-Energy Equivalence | September 27 | E=mc² | Unlocked nuclear energy |
A 26-year-old patent clerk, working in isolation, solved problems that had stumped the greatest minds in physics. He did this not with expensive equipment or academic resources, but with pure thought experiments and mathematical reasoning.
The Idea: The laws of physics are identical for all observers moving at constant velocity. The speed of light is the same for all observers, regardless of their motion.
Key Insights:
- Time is not absolute; it slows down at high speeds (time dilation)
- Length contracts in the direction of motion
- Simultaneity is relative; two events can appear simultaneous to one observer but not to another
- Nothing can travel faster than light
The Thought Experiment:
"What would happen if I rode alongside a beam of light?"
Einstein imagined chasing a light beam at the speed of light. According to classical physics, the light should appear frozen. But this contradicted Maxwell's equations, which said light always moves at the same speed. This paradox led him to special relativity.
The Equation:
E = mc²
E = Energy
m = Mass
c = Speed of light (299,792,458 m/s)
What It Means:
- Mass and energy are the same thing in different forms
- A tiny amount of mass contains enormous energy (c² is a huge number)
- This explains how the sun produces energy and enables nuclear power
Real-World Impact:
- Nuclear power plants
- Atomic weapons
- Understanding stellar fusion
- PET scans in medicine
Example: One gram of matter, if fully converted to energy, releases the equivalent of 21.5 kilotons of TNT (similar to the Hiroshima bomb).
The Idea: Gravity is not a force, but a curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy.
Key Insights:
- Massive objects bend the fabric of spacetime
- Objects follow the straightest possible path through curved spacetime (geodesics)
- Time runs slower in stronger gravitational fields
- Light bends around massive objects
The Thought Experiment:
"A person in free fall does not feel their own weight."
Einstein realized that gravity and acceleration are indistinguishable (the equivalence principle). This led him to reconceptualize gravity entirely.
Proof - The 1919 Eclipse:
British astronomer Arthur Eddington photographed stars near the sun during a total solar eclipse. The stars appeared slightly shifted from their normal positions, exactly as Einstein predicted. Headlines declared: "LIGHTS ALL ASKEW IN THE HEAVENS."
Einstein became a global celebrity overnight.
The Problem: When light hits certain metals, electrons are emitted. But the energy of these electrons depends on the light's color (frequency), not its intensity. Classical physics couldn't explain this.
Einstein's Solution: Light comes in discrete packets called "quanta" (later named photons). Each photon carries energy proportional to its frequency: E = hf.
Impact:
- Foundation of quantum mechanics
- Earned Einstein the Nobel Prize (1921)
- Enables solar panels, digital cameras, and light sensors
The Observation: Tiny particles suspended in water move randomly and erratically.
Einstein's Contribution: He provided a mathematical model explaining this motion as the result of countless collisions with invisible atoms and molecules.
Impact:
- Provided definitive proof that atoms exist
- Ended decades of scientific debate about atomic theory
Einstein was not a typical prodigy. He spoke late, questioned authority, and disliked rote learning. At 16, he imagined chasing a beam of light, planting the seed for relativity.
Key Influences:
- Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism
- Ernst Mach's critique of Newtonian mechanics
- His own thought experiments
The Patent Office Years: Working 8 hours a day examining patents gave Einstein time to think. He called it his "worldly cloister" where he could work on physics in his spare moments.
In a single year, Einstein:
- Solved the photoelectric effect
- Proved atoms exist
- Invented special relativity
- Discovered E=mc²
All while working a full-time job with no academic position.
Einstein spent 8 years developing general relativity. It was the hardest intellectual work of his life.
The Journey:
- 1907: The equivalence principle (gravity = acceleration)
- 1912: Realizes he needs non-Euclidean geometry
- 1913: Works with mathematician Marcel Grossmann on tensor calculus
- 1915: Completes the field equations of general relativity
The Final Month: In November 1915, Einstein and mathematician David Hilbert were racing to complete the equations. Einstein submitted his final paper on November 25, 1915.
After the 1919 eclipse confirmed general relativity, Einstein became the world's most famous scientist. But this era also brought challenges:
- Attacks from anti-Semitic German physicists
- The rise of Nazism
- Debates with Niels Bohr over quantum mechanics
"God does not play dice": Einstein never accepted quantum indeterminacy, famously debating Bohr for decades.
Einstein fled Germany in 1933 and settled at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. He spent his final decades:
- Searching (unsuccessfully) for a unified field theory
- Advocating for civil rights and pacifism
- Warning the world about nuclear weapons
At 16, Einstein failed the general portion of the entrance exam to ETH Zurich. He passed math and physics brilliantly but failed French, chemistry, and biology.
Rejected for academic positions, Einstein took a job at the Swiss Patent Office in 1902. He called it "that worldly cloister where I hatched my most beautiful ideas."
In 1902, before they married, Einstein and Mileva Marić had a daughter named Lieserl. She was likely given up for adoption or died of scarlet fever. Her fate remains unknown.
Einstein promised Mileva the Nobel Prize money as part of their divorce settlement in 1919. When he won in 1921, she received the equivalent of about $1.5 million today.
Einstein's second wife, Elsa Löwenthal, was his first cousin on his mother's side and his second cousin on his father's side.
In 1939, Einstein signed a letter to President Roosevelt warning that Germany might develop an atomic bomb. This led to the Manhattan Project. He later called it "the one great mistake in my life."
In 1952, Israel offered Einstein the presidency after Chaim Weizmann died. He declined, saying: "I am deeply moved by the offer... but I am not only not suited for the job, but also not prepared."
When Einstein died in 1955, pathologist Thomas Harvey performed the autopsy and removed his brain without permission. Harvey kept it for over 40 years, distributing pieces to researchers. Studies found unusual features in the areas related to mathematical and spatial reasoning.
J. Edgar Hoover's FBI kept a 1,427-page file on Einstein, suspecting him of Communist sympathies. Einstein was an outspoken pacifist and civil rights advocate, which made him a target during the Red Scare.
Einstein's last words were spoken in German to a nurse who didn't speak the language. We will never know what he said.
"Imagination is more important than knowledge. Knowledge is limited. Imagination encircles the world."
"The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existing."
"If you can't explain it simply, you don't understand it well enough."
"The only source of knowledge is experience."
"I have no special talents. I am only passionately curious."
"Logic will get you from A to B. Imagination will take you everywhere."
"The measure of intelligence is the ability to change."
"In the middle of difficulty lies opportunity."
"I made one great mistake in my life — when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made."
"Equations are more important to me, because politics is for the present, but an equation is for eternity."
| Year | Age | Event |
|---|---|---|
| 1879 | 0 | Born in Ulm, Germany |
| 1895 | 16 | Imagines chasing a beam of light |
| 1896 | 17 | Renounces German citizenship to avoid military service |
| 1900 | 21 | Graduates from ETH Zurich |
| 1902 | 23 | Begins work at Swiss Patent Office; daughter Lieserl born |
| 1903 | 24 | Marries Mileva Marić |
| 1905 | 26 | Miracle Year: Publishes four revolutionary papers |
| 1914 | 35 | Separates from Mileva; moves to Berlin |
| 1915 | 36 | Completes General Relativity |
| 1919 | 40 | Eclipse confirms relativity; divorces Mileva; marries Elsa |
| 1921 | 42 | Awarded Nobel Prize for Photoelectric Effect |
| 1933 | 54 | Flees Nazi Germany; settles in Princeton |
| 1939 | 60 | Signs letter to Roosevelt warning of atomic weapons |
| 1940 | 61 | Becomes U.S. citizen |
| 1952 | 73 | Offered presidency of Israel; declines |
| 1955 | 76 | Dies in Princeton, New Jersey |
- GPS satellites correct for time dilation predicted by relativity
- Gravitational waves detected in 2015, confirming a 100-year-old prediction
- Black hole images captured in 2019 using general relativity
- Quantum computing builds on the foundations Einstein helped lay
- Showed that our intuitions about space and time are wrong
- Demonstrated that one person, thinking deeply, can change everything
- Proved that imagination and skepticism of authority lead to breakthroughs
- The archetypal genius: wild hair, humble demeanor, playful humor
- Showed that great minds can be flawed humans
- Modeled moral courage in the face of Nazism and McCarthyism
| Title | Author | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Einstein: His Life and Universe | Walter Isaacson | Definitive biography; primary source for this repo |
| Subtle Is the Lord | Abraham Pais | Technical biography by a physicist who knew Einstein |
| The Meaning of Relativity | Albert Einstein | Einstein's own explanation of his theories |
| Relativity: The Special and General Theory | Albert Einstein | Popular introduction by Einstein himself |
- On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies (Special Relativity, 1905)
- Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? (E=mc², 1905)
- Genius (National Geographic series, 2017)
- Einstein Revealed (PBS Nova, 1996)
Primary reference: "Einstein: His Life and Universe" by Walter Isaacson (2007, Simon & Schuster)
Additional sources: American Physical Society, Institute for Advanced Study, Nobel Prize archives, Collected Papers of Albert Einstein.
"The pursuit of truth and beauty is a sphere of activity in which we are permitted to remain children all our lives."
— Albert Einstein
Last updated: January 13, 2026